Authorities Cited: Supreme Court 457 U.S. 147, 156-160 Circuit Courts 454 F.2d 1362, 1366 485 F.2d 710, 713 584 F.2d 1325, 1332 661 F.2d 1206, 1209 130 F.3d 999, 1006 221 F.3d 1266, 1278-1279 247 F.3d 1262, 1273-1288 331 F.3d 13, 21-22 390 F.3d 695, 722 412 F.3d 1224, 1227 472 F.3d 1334, 1336 493 F.3d 1276, 1285 497 F.3d 1214, 1218 Federal Rules of Civil Procedure Fed. R. Civ. P. 1 Fed. R. Civ. P. 12(b)(6) Fed. R. Civ. P. 23 Fed. R. Civ. P. 23(a) Fed. R. Civ. P. 23(b) Fed. R. Civ. P. 23(c)(1)(A) 159 F. Supp. 2d 928, 934-935 675 F. Supp. 1064, 1068