Authorities Cited: Supreme Court 98 U.S. 142, 143 355 U.S. 41, 45-46 371 U.S. 132, 136-137 421 U.S. 723 449 U.S. 424 455 U.S. 551 501 U.S. 350, 364 Circuit Courts 193 F.2d 461, 464 551 F.2d 1005 655 F.2d 627, 641 661 F.2d 1206, 1207 711 F.2d 989, 995 719 F.2d 608, 612-613 764 F.2d 827, 833 769 F.2d 700, 703 840 F.2d 1012, 1015 863 F.2d 1550 115 F.3d 1332, 1335 116 F.3d 1364, 1368-1369 122 F.3d 363, 369 146 F.3d 1305, 1307 182 F.3d 799, 802 182 F.3d 1291, 1293 253 F.3d 678, 683 282 F.3d 147, 153 300 F.3d 730, 735 321 F.3d 429, 436 410 F.3d 1275, 1283-1288 Federal Rules of Civil Procedure Fed. R. Civ. P. 12(b)(6) 27 F. Supp. 2d 1324, 1341