Authorities Cited: United States Code 42 U.S.C. § 1983 Supreme Court 429 U.S. 97, 102-104 452 U.S. 337, 344-347 501 U.S. 294, 303-305 503 U.S. 1, 8-9 509 U.S. 25, 32-113 511 U.S. 825, 114-847 Circuit Courts 398 F.2d 496, 499 661 F.2d 1206, 1209 755 F.2d 1516, 1531 816 F.2d 1165, 1171 842 F.2d 23, 27 926 F.2d 1057 940 F.2d 1055, 1059-1060 25 F.3d 980, 984 32 F.3d 1024, 1035-1036 51 F.3d 577 80 F.3d 1433, 1443 83 F.3d 1083 114 F.3d 640 170 F.3d 1312, 1316-1317 193 F.3d 346, 349 206 F.3d 1106, 1131 212 F.3d 1205, 1207 223 F.3d 1259, 1260 255 F.3d 644 268 F.3d 1014, 1028 320 F.3d 1235, 1245 Federal Rules of Civil Procedure Fed. R. Civ. P. 12(b)(1) Fed. R. Civ. P. 23(b)(2) Fed. R. Civ. P. 52(a) 8 F. Supp. 2d 685, 689 172 F. Supp. 2d 1128, 1133 713 F. Supp. 238 717 F. Supp. 854 794 F. Supp. 877